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Discuss psychological
theories of how and why performance anxiety affects musicians, evaluating the
effectiveness of different coping strategies, and suggesting ways in which
future research might increase understanding of the experience of performing.
Give concrete examples for the phenomena that you discuss wherever possible.
If you were to ask most people
what makes them different from a computer, they would probably answer emotion -
the ability to feel things. Human beings do not act like machines. However, not
all our emotions are positive. Some like anger and fear can be quite
destructive. They fill us with tensions -especially in the muscles. This tension
is caused by an overload of Adrenalin, which enters the bloodstream whenever you
face a stressful situation. It causes hyper-alertness. In part, this reaction is
a survival response. It is known as the 'fight or flight reaction'.
Mostly we only use a small
amount of our potential strength and energy to live, but during the 'fight or
flight reaction', the body changes the way it operates physically in order to
maximise the strength and energy. This reaction is a very powerful response that
serves an important survival function, though it is not quite as helpful when we
are faced with non-physical threats such as the fear of making mistakes and
performing in public. Because these actions do not require physical action (such
as running from a threat), we do not use nor absorb the energy the body has
given us and we quickly become stressed. In a performing situation this build up
of adrenalin causes symptoms like shaking, excessive sweating and
hyperventilation, and interferes with the performance.
Unfortunately human pride can
be so strong that fear of public humiliation or disgrace often produces the same
degree of emotional panic as meeting a tiger. The general name given for this
kind of physical state is arousal. Long-term arousal can affect our physical
health. It is called stress and is one of the most studied areas of psychology
because it affects so many different people in so very different ways. Long-term
stress suppresses the body's immune system, makes us very jumpy and alert to
potential threats. It also interferes with judgement so that we are less likely
to make sensible, rational decisions or to appraise what is going on
realistically. So what is anxiety or performance anxiety? How do we cope with it
as performers and how can we help avoid anxiety? These are questions I will
endeavour to answer in the course of this essay.
What
is anxiety?
The feeling of anxiety is very
common. Some people refer to it as nerves and everyone, musician or
non-musician, has experienced anxiety at one time or another. The feeling of
general uneasiness, a sense of foreboding and a feeling of tension is something
that happens in our day-to-day lives.
Anxiety has both a
physiological and a psychological aspect and it is the psychological aspect that
affects the way we interpret sensations (Clarke et al 2000). We can become
anxious in situations merely because we perceive a threat even where there is
none. William James, an early psychologist, suggested that all human emotions
actually come from our perception of the situation/condition we are in (Hayes
1999): we do not weep because we feel sorrow: we feel sorrow because we weep.
Further studies (Schachter and Singer as cited in Hayes 1999) concluded that
although it is our awareness of the situation that produces the emotion we
actually feel, it is our physical condition which influences how strongly we
actually feel it. In a performance situation, we don't feel anxious because of
performing, the situation is anxious because of the way we feel. This describes
Pathological anxiety mentioned presently.
Several types of clinical
anxiety have been identified:
So, what is performance Anxiety?
There are three qualities that
a successful performer must have: a) a technical control of their instrument, b)
good taste in using this technique musically and artistically and c) the courage
to do this in front of an audience. There are few activities that can produce
tension and anxiety as quickly and as thoroughly as performing in public.
Most performers have
experienced performance anxiety in some form and to various degrees. This fear
may be experienced while preparing for a performance, for days or even weeks
before hand, and not just while performing. It can be experienced in the present
(stage fright) as apprehension (fear of what could happen) and arousal
(anticipation). Performance anxiety is no different from general anxiety.
Feelings of fear and apprehension are accompanied by increased and prolonged
physiological arousal. Severe anxiety is where the arousal is too high for
optimal performance. This arousal may be normal and temporary, or abnormal and
long lasting and symptoms can be cognitive, behavioural and physiological.
Research (Steptoe 1989) shows that the processes underlying musical performance
anxiety indicate that cognitive, behavioural and physiological factors are
involved.
Physiological reactions to
stress and anxiety include difficulty concentrating, loss of appetite, increased
heart rate, and shortness of breath, dizziness, butterflies, shaking knees,
shaking hands and sweaty palms. Generally the physiological symptoms are part of
the fight or flight reflex. Measurements taken during studies of performance
anxiety also showed raised levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline in the urine
and this causes the hyper-alertness mentioned previously. This indicates
activation of the nervous system (Deutsch 1999) and these physiological
reactions interfere with performing by making it difficult to control finger
actions and breathing.
Cognitive symptoms of anxiety
include fear of making mistakes and feelings of inadequacy and worrying about
things happening. Behavioural symptoms are not being able to do things, which
normally happen naturally.
The three components of
performance anxiety (physiological, cognitive and behavioural as mentioned
previously) are the same as in general anxiety and are not always co-related
(Lehrer in Grindea 1995). Sometimes the symptoms of performance anxiety come
from one group and at other times all three. Interestingly, performance anxiety
seems to affect more females than males (Deutsch 1999). Abel et al (1990) puts
this down to the theory that males are less able to express their feelings than
females.
Levels of performance anxiety
vary considerably between musicians, as do the effects that anxiety has on their
performances. Age seems to be significant in the matter of performance anxiety
suggesting that as they get older, professional musicians are more able to cope
with stress (Clarke et al. 2000). The development of strategies for coping may
increase with age and experience. Inability to communicate is usually not due to
lack of desire or lack of ability or talent but is usually the result of
physical tension, flawed mental attitudes and social pressures. The one thing
that is not clear is whether physical tensions cause the flawed mental attitudes
or do flawed mental attitudes cause the physical tensions? Further research may
shed light on this.
The
transactional model of stress suggests that anxiety occurs when an individual
believes that they do not have the ability to handle the demands of a situation
(Reactive anxiety). Studies have indicated that high levels of anxiety are
related to low levels of confidence (Abel et al 1990). Mastery of task and anxiety are related. Research has found that if the
task is simple or well learned so that the correct responses are dominant, then
an audience enhances task performances (Zajonc as cited in Lloyd & Mayes
1999). If the task is poorly learned such that incorrect responses are likely to
be dominant, then an audience inhibits task performance. Therefore the general
effect of an audience is to enhance the likelihood of dominant responses. The
argument therefore is that the presence of others increases drive and thereby
enhances the performance of well-learned tasks and inhibits the performance of
poorly learned tasks.
Picard (1999) states that
literature on Performance Anxiety is contradictory. Some research stresses
Performance Anxiety's detrimental effects while others deal with the positive
effects but most research so far on the causes of anxiety, has focused on brain
processes and psychological factors such as cognitive processes and learning
processes. From the earliest work on anxiety, researchers have consistently
reported a negative correlation between high levels of anxiety and achievement.
The effects of anxiety on achievement are quite clear. Anxiety can be both the
cause and effect of failure. Performers play badly because they are anxious and
their poor performance increases their anxiety.
But it is suggested that some
anxiety is good for us as performers (Adaptive anxiety). It may actually help us
to perform better in some situations (Hallam 1998), and while anxiety can be
negative, musicians tend to respond to anxiety rather than be affected by it -
indeed many performers argue that they need to be aroused in order to perform
well (Steptoe 1989) and the Yerkes-Dodson law (Eysenck 1998) states that
performance is enhanced with mild levels of anxiety.
However performance begins to
suffer if the anxiety becomes too great (Maladaptive anxiety). Experience of
traumatic events producing anxiety has a long history in psychology. One bad
experience of performing leads to another. The experience becomes internalised
through a process of conditioning and so the fear is reproduced in later
situations. Anxiety becomes a response to something that may happen and not a
response to something that does happen. This is the Catastrophe Theory and it
was originally a mathematical model (Hardy & Parfitt 1991). The 'vicious
circle' becomes possible where the perception of mistakes leads to the increase
of anxiety, leading to more mistakes until the performance collapses. Anxiety
and stress may also affect the self-reflective capacity that we as human beings
have (Gross 1995). This in turn may influence self-esteem and faith in one's
ability, which may also increase the anxiety, felt, and increases the likelihood
of pathological anxiety developing.
So, why is anxiety so common -
particularly since it is an unpleasant experience? Like most psychological
disorders, general anxiety tends to run in families. Torgerson (as cited in
Eysenck 1998) found that anxiety states were around twice as common in close
relatives. His evidence from twin studies suggested that there might be a
genetic basis to general anxiety but it did not appear to be a strong influence.
Kemp (1996) claims that performance anxiety is most likely to affect those who
have a tendency to neuroticism and that musicians have more anxious, neurotic
personalities than most of the general population. It is difficult though, to
assess whether this is because a nervous disposition helps you become a musician
or if musical performance leads to anxiety. So is anxiety a personality trait
shared by those who become musicians or is there something about performing that
leads to pathological anxiety? In other words is anxiety a 'trait' (due to
personality) or is it a 'state' (due to the particular circumstance)?
This is a difficult question to
answer. Steptoe, A. & Fidler, H. (1987) found that there was a direct
correlation between performance anxiety and neuroticism (a personality 'trait')
leading us to believe that there may be a connection between personality and
performance anxiety. Eysenck (Robinson 2000) also proposed that personality was
made up of many traits and that these traits give rise to tendencies to behave
in particular ways, including being anxious. In addition, Kemp (1996) thinks
that it is important to make a distinction between 'trait' anxiety, (your
tendency to be anxious) and 'state' anxiety (Which is when a person's anxiety
levels are affected by a situation.). However in reality the difference between
'state' and 'trait' is not as clear-cut. A person's tendency to anxiety will
influence the level of response they give to a situation but in fact, the
situation may be stressful and the performer will react to it and not their
innate tendency to be anxious. Some performers are anxious in many situations
while some situations are especially anxiety provoking. (State anxiety)
Skinner's belief (Robinson 2000) was that our environment determined our
behaviour and we should also be aware that the mere physical presence of some
people could have an influence on thoughts, feelings and actions whether or not
the person is involved with the performer as another group member.
Many researchers (e.g. Hamann
& Sobaje 1983) believe that far from being a negative influence, 'State'
anxiety (When a person's anxiety levels are affected by a situation) has
motivational and drive properties that are of benefit to performance. Kemp
(1996) also thinks anxiety can be motivational. Arousal can be enhanced by
anxiety and therefore heightens the degrees of sensitivity and imagination. In
other words, a small amount of anxiety is not only normal but also it is helpful
and necessary to perform tasks more efficiently. Hamann and Sobaje (1983) showed
that levels of 'state' anxiety could actually assist a performance. Clearly this
correlates with research (Steptoe 1989 and Hallam 1998) and the Yerkes-Dodson
law (Eysenck 1998) as mentioned before.
Hamann
(1982) also managed to demonstrate a relationship between trait and state
anxiety: performers with high trait anxiety experienced greater increases in
state anxiety than those with lower trait anxiety. Moreover, Hamann found that
students who had a high level of mastery on their instrument benefited more from
the high levels of state anxiety then those who shared the same levels of trait
anxiety but possessed low mastery. This confirms Zajonc's research (as cited in Lloyd & Mayes
1999) mentioned previously, but clearly there is still opportunity for more
research.
So,
the causes of anxiety can be many different things and the factors that may contribute to performance anxiety are many: too much
practise, too little practise (Reactive anxiety) fear of illness, other people's
expectations, the pursuit of technical perfection, performing ('state' and
pathological anxiety) and a predisposed tendency to anxiety. (Trait anxiety and
maladaptive anxiety) Identifying the cause of your anxiety is important and
identifying which group your symptoms come from is significant in deciding which
'therapy' to pursue. Anxiety
is an intrinsic part of human nature and a lot of research has been focused on
how to harness stress and turn it into a positive force. If you learn why
something happens, it usually becomes less frightening, (Jones 2000) but
unfortunately tension plays a disproportionate part of everyday life for many
performing artists and they have to find a way to cope.
Coping
Strategies
The obvious cure is avoidance of what gives you
anxiety. This is not an option for most musicians and luckily there are
countless ways of coping with the stress of performing. Sometimes advice on how
to cope with stress seems far removed from the special nature of the situations
musicians are in. But in fact the physical and mental manifestations of nerves
and anxiety are the same for everyone no matter what activity they are involved
in. The problem for music performers is that anxiety is usually
counter-productive to the task at hand. There are several 'coping strategies'
that can be employed in an attempt to control performance anxiety. For instance
there are relaxation techniques and alternative medicines as well as self-help
(such as diet), medication, counselling, therapy and use of combinations of
treatments.
Folk-culture
suggests changes in diet as a means of calming anxiety prior to a performance.
It is believed, for example, that bananas act as a natural beta-blocker. Others
suggest medication and advocate the use of drugs like tranquillisers,
beta-blockers and corticosteroids. These are more likely to help the
physiological symptoms because Beta-blockers block the body's response to
adrenaline and corticosteroids work by reducing inflammation through suppression
of the immune responses (Dr. Sarah Smith, personal communication). As mentioned
previously, Adrenalin enters the bloodstream whenever you face a stressful
situation. It causes hyper-alertness, which can add to performance (as already
discussed) but if present in too great amounts can cause all the symptoms
mentioned previously with regard to performance anxiety. Drugs stop this from
happening. While it is true that drugs can be effective in the treatment of
performance anxiety, it can only ever be a short-term solution to the problem
due to the addictive nature of the drugs involved - even though they are
commonly prescribed for performance anxiety. For the same reasons, alcohol is
not the answer either.
Psychologists
make a distinction between two basic types of coping strategy - problem focused
strategy and emotion focused strategy (Robinson 2000) Problem focused strategy
attempts to deal with those aspects of the environment that are responsible for
the stress and anxiety experienced. (That is, dealing directly with the
stressful situation.) Emotion focused strategy attempts to change the way a
person thinks about a stressful situation. Sufferers would try to deal with the
emotional consequences of the stress rather than try to change the situation.
Often an active problem focused strategy is more effective in dealing with
anxiety (Robinson 2000) probably because changing the perception of the
situation changes the way a person thinks anyway.
It
is thought that performance anxiety represents a particularly appropriate
therapeutic target for cognitive-behavioural therapy (Kendrick et al 1982).
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a major approach involved in the treatment of
anxiety. It draws on methods from both behavioural and cognitive approaches.
Behavioural
therapies assume that anxiety is a learned or conditioned response to a
particular situation and the therapy used attempts to break the link between the
situation and response. A sufferer may be exposed to the feared situation in
increasing amounts while employing a relaxation technique. Behaviour therapy
however, is frowned upon within the world of psychotherapists because, despite
being useful, it is seen as manipulative and humiliating (Gross 1995).
Cognitive
therapies assume that distortions in a person's thoughts and beliefs can lead to
a number of problems including anxiety. Becoming aware of negative thoughts and
trying to substitute them with more positive thoughts is part of the treatment
used in cognitive-behavioural therapy (Steptoe & Fidler 1987). Mentally
picturing the situation helps some people overcome their anxiety. Coping imagery
can be useful too. If you can anticipate what might go wrong and come up with
scenarios where you cope then you are less likely to feel apprehensive.
Imagination is a powerful tool and must not be underestimated.
Combining
both these methods, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy has proved more effective than
behavioural or cognitive methods alone (Kendrick et al 1982). Changing both the
view of the performing situation and giving positive experiences of performing
can reduce anxiety. Sweeney and Horan (1982) also investigated the use of
combinations of different strategies. Their experiment compared cue-controlled
relaxation and cognitive restructuring and a combination of the two against a
control condition. The combined treatment showed most benefits corroborating
other research.
Other
therapies are used in very similar ways. Systematic desensitisation aims to
gradually replace the response of fear and anxiety with an alternative response.
This was found to be a successful treatment for musicians (Deutsch 1999).
Another is behaviour modification, which is specifically aimed at changing
behaviour, and therefore behavioural symptoms, but it is not concerned with the
person's thoughts and feelings. You are more likely to see positive behaviour if
it is rewarded with positive reinforcement. As stated before, anxiety is
accompanied by increased and prolonged physiological arousal. Basically by
inducing people to reattribute their 'arousal' from a threatening source to a
neutral or less threatening one, they can be helped to function more effectively
in settings which induce their anxiety.
As
you can see, understanding that your mind and body are linked is common to most
therapies used to overcome performance anxiety. Psychodynamic is a term that
encompasses those areas in psychology, which assume we are driven by the content
in our minds. An important idea in the psychodynamic approach is the view that
our childhood experiences have a considerable influence on our behaviour as
adults. This would imply that the reason behind some incidences of performance
anxiety might be some bad experience of performing in the informative years.
This method also implies that
teachers can help on the 'shop floor' by not allowing anxiety to become an
issue. This is also in line with Bandura's social learning theory, which
encourages positive observation. Students performing to each other in informal
gatherings can be helpful and will benefit those with signs of performance
anxiety provided that favourable concepts of audiences are fostered. The younger
this is done, the better. Picard (1999) thinks that music educators should bring
students face to face with their fears. Nearly all players, amateur and
professional, suffer from anxiety and there is no need to be ashamed of it.
Other than in an exam scenario, in music performing there is no pass or fail,
only performing as well as you can on the day. Joanna Macgregor (Jones 2000)
believes that the pressure of competition and judgement causes a lot of anxiety.
She was told, "When you perform, it's the most important thing in the world
to you and at the same time it is not important at all. People are not going to
die, the world isn't going to stop turning." If as a performer you can
grasp this, it gives things a sense of proportion.
Another
possible treatment is hypnotherapy. Usually this would consist of sessions of
relaxation, suggestions including breathing, visual imagery and verbal
suggestions linking these images to increased mental control. Hypnotherapy does
appear to help performance anxiety (Stanton 1993) but further research is needed
to compare the effectiveness of hypnotherapy to other therapies normally used to
treat performance anxiety to truly evaluate its usefulness.
Alexander
Technique has been shown to have some benefits in coping with performance
anxiety (Valentine et al 1995). Many performers also use Yoga, massage,
reflexology, t’ai chi or aikido to help them relax, although complete relaxation is neither possible nor musically appropriate (Gellrich
1991). Other performers advocate homeopathy, either consulting a Homeopath or
using remedies that other performers have recommended.
Some
performers also practise in extreme conditions to simulate the performance
situation. For example, playing after you have run up and down the stairs
simulates breathlessness and playing in really hot conditions can simulate
conditions caused by excessive sweating. The theory behind this bizarre
'practice' based therapy is that having experienced these extremes you will be
more able to cope with them when they occur in a performance situation.
So
that they do not feel anxious because of under-preparation, there are also
various things a performer can do at the first signs of performance anxiety to
stop the process spiralling till they need professional help. For example, it is
not a good idea for performers to play pieces in public if they have doubts
about their ability to play them. It
may seem like common sense, but making sure that they like the music on their
programme may help. Starting the programme with an easier piece also gives a
chance to warm up properly.
Practical,
logical advice is often overlooked: Feeling comfortable is important so
performers should avoid wearing clothes or shoes that are uncomfortable.
Thinking about why you play music is helpful. Musicians must try to communicate
and not think about their egos, which sometimes contribute to anxiety! (Trait
anxiety)
On the night, they should allow
lots of time to get to the venue and be relaxed as possible. They must take time
once on stage to make sure that everything is as they want it to be. They must
prepare well in advance - mentally and physically, practise with and without the
accompanist as much as possible. They should get to know their fellow ensemble
players. If they are comfortable with them, then they are less likely to feel
nervous of them or of the situation. They must try going back to basics and
remember that performing is what making music is about. It's nothing 'big'
simply part of their life. The more importance they give it, the more likely
they are to feel anxious about it. This is basically cognitive therapy and
behavioural modification all rolled into one - the performer is in control of
the situation.
Confidence and a sense of
achievement are the best substitutes for fear or anxiety. It is worth assessing
just what the sufferer thinks music making is supposed to be about. Remember the
three Cs and the three Es. The 3 Cs - Concentrate, Competence
and Confidence. If you concentrate when you practise, this will
lead to competence and confidence. The 3 Es - Enthusiasm, Enjoyment
and Entertainment. Your audience want to enjoy the performance. If
they sense the performer is having a good time then that will encourage them to
believe in what the performer is doing.
Some
approaches attempt to help the physiological symptoms of performance anxiety
while others concentrate on the cognitive or behavioural symptoms. Nagel et al
(1989) believed that an approach using combinations of therapies that targeted
all symptoms should be used for the treatment of Performance Anxiety. They
showed in a case study of a pianist that desensitisation, cognitive
restructuring and in vivo performance practice resulted in lower levels of
anxiety. This corroborates the evidence found by Kendrick et al (1982) and
Sweeney and Horan (1982). It would appear that the most successful treatments
are those that combine relaxation training with developing realistic
expectations.
Ways
in which future research might increase understanding
Unfortunately a lot of
statements about performance anxiety are based on speculation and biased
assessment rather than on research results (Hamann 1982). But from a review of
the literature, it would appear that apart from Kemp (1996) there has only been
a little research on the possible correlation between personality types and
performance anxiety. Further research may help music educators to help all
pupils with this aspect of performance and to identify the pupils who need the
most help in this area. Additional research would be helpful to therapists,
psychologists, musicians and educators so that problems could be identified
earlier on by these groups and hence the problem would not spiral out of
control.
There
also there seems little research on the advantage or disadvantage of age and
experience over performance anxiety. As
mentioned before, as they get older, professional musicians are more able to
cope with stress. (Clarke et al. 2000) But this could be for a variety of
reasons: excessive anxiety may cause people to leave the profession, (And
therefore not be included in statistics) or the development of strategies for
coping may increase with age and experience. There is clearly potential for
research in this area, investigating the roles of age, experience and
confidence.
It
is important that self-reported anxiety be studied alongside the physiological
and behavioural components of performance anxiety. Research (Dews & Williams
1989) suggested that emotional and psychological issues needed more research.
For Example:
Most
studies have been involved with reducing anxiety. In these studies researchers
assumed that anxiety decreased the quality of performance. But in reality it was
found that performers with high amounts of formal training performed in a
superior manner in anxious situations. Is there a significant relationship
between performance environment and the performers training? It would be both
interesting and useful to pursue more study in this area. Comparing all the
different therapies may be useful (As suggested by Wilson in Hargreaves and
North 1997). It would help identify the most useful strategies for certain
personalities.
Summary
There is much fascination with
the study of performance anxiety. Performers feel a need to understand this
phenomenon if they are to be in control of their body and instrument in
performance situations. Musicians agree that performing in public stimulates
performance anxiety but how musicians respond varies and that anxiety can help
or hinder depending on the intensity of anxiety felt. Anxiety should be seen as
a helpful warning that alerts us to possible danger and will allow us to take
steps to avoid that which we feel anxious about. Errors made in practice should
be viewed simply as ways not to play and not as mistakes. Everything must be
kept in context. Patience, persistence, self-awareness and the attitude of
self-searching will all help in the control of performance anxiety (Havas in
Grindea 1995).
With emphasis on relaxation,
preparation and self-discovery, anxiety can be controlled. Handling performance
anxiety is as much about your attitude of mind as it is about practical
solutions. There is no more potent cure for performance anxiety than the
knowledge that you can do it. Learning to control our feelings and anxiety
through various techniques of relaxation, therapy and the all-important
preparation of practise can help us as performers to triumph over performance
anxiety.
References
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Clarke, E., Davidson, J.W., Windsor, W.L., & Pitts, S. (2000) Distance Learning Module: The Psychology of Performance Sheffield: University of Sheffield
Deutsch, D. (1999) The Psychology of Music 2nd Edition London: Academic Press
Dews, C.L.B. & Williams, M.S. (1989) Student Musician's Personality Styles, Stresses and Coping Patterns Psychology of Music 17 37-47
Eysenck, M. (1998) Psychology, an Integrated Approach Harlow: Longman
Gellrich, M. (1991) Concentration and Tension British Journal of Music Education 8 167-179
Grindea, C (1995) Tensions in the Performance of Music London: Kahn & Averill
Gross, R. (1995) Themes, Issues and Debates in Psychology Boldon: Hodder & Stoughton Educational
Hallam, S. (1998) Instrumental Teaching Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Hamann, D. L. (1982) An Assessment of Anxiety in Instrumental and Vocal Performances Journal of Research in Music Education 30 77-90
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Hargreaves, D. & North, A. (1997) The Social Psychology of Music Oxford: Oxford University Press
Hayes, N. (1999) Teach Yourself Psychology London: Hodder and Stoughton
Jones, K. (2000) Keeping Your Nerve London: Faber Music Limited
Kemp, A.E. (1996) The Musical Temperament Oxford: Oxford University Press
Kendrick, M.J., Craig, K.D., Lawson, D.M. & Davidson, P.O. (1982) Cognitive and Behavioural Therapy for Musical-Performance Anxiety Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 50(3) 353-362
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Nagel, J.J., Himle, D.P. & Papsdorf, J.D. (1989) Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment of Musical Performance Anxiety Psychology of Music 17 12-21
Picard, A. (1999) Qualitative Pedagogical
Inquiry Into Cognitive Modulation of Performance Anxiety Council for Research
in Music Education Bulletin Spring 1999 62-76
Robinson, D. (2000) 101 Key Ideas - Psychology London: Hodder and Stoughton
Stanton, H.E. (1993) Research Note: Alleviation of Performance Anxiety Through Hypnotherapy Psychology of Music 21 78-82
Steptoe, A. & Fidler, H. (1987) Stage Fright in Orchestral Musicians: a study of cognitive and Behavioural strategies in performance anxiety British Journal of Psychology 78 241-249
Steptoe, A. (1989) Stress, Coping and Stage Fright in Professional Musicians Psychology of Music 17 3-11
Sweeney, G.A. & Horan, J.J. (1982) Separate and combined effects of cue-controlled relaxation and cognitive restructuring in the treatment of musical performance anxiety Journal of Counselling Psychology 29 486-497
Valentine, E.R., Fitzgerald, D.F.P., Gorton, T.L., Hudson, J.A. & Symonds, E.R. (1995) The effect of lessons in the Alexander Technique on Music Performance in high and low stress situations Psychology of Music 23 129-141
Carole B. Miller
Copyright © 2002 [Mostlywind]. All rights reserved.
Revised: March 16, 2006